Grammatical
cohesion
1.1.
Reference
Reference is used to describe the different ways in which
entities-things, people, events- are referred to within texts. There are range
linguistic features, which enables speakers and writers to make such
References, for example pronouns - may refer to entities already mentioned or
about to be mentioned.
1.1.1. Personal
reference
It
is a reference by means of function into a speech situation through the
category of the person in the form of personal pronouns. The category of persons
includes the three classes of personal pronouns. The category of person
includes the three classes of personal pronouns.
Examples:
1) The
banker was annoyed of the fact that while he
tossed and turned in his bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always
awoke rested and full of energy.
2) He
decided to find out why the pauper was a happy man in spite of his
poverty. So he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly
income because he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of
wealth.
3) He
decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he
should need it.
4) So,
when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of
the garden, threw the bag into it, and covered it with dirt.
5) Finally,
he could bear his unhappiness no longer. He went to the garden, dug up the
coins and returned them to the banker.
The
example number 1 shows that “The banker” is the same person with “he”. So in
this case, “he” refers back to “The banker”, and we can say it is an anaphoric.
In the second example, we can find that
“the pauper” is the same person with both “him”. So, both “him” refer back to
“the pauper”; it is called anaphoric too.
In the third example, “the money” is the
same thing as “it” and we also call it an anaphoric. Anaphoric also found in
the fourth and fifth example – “a
big hole” and both “it”, both “it” refer back to “a big hole”; and “the coins”
is the same thing as “them”, so “them” refers back to “the coins”.
1.1.2. Demonstrative
reference
Demonstrative
reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the
referent by locating it on scale of proximity. In the case of the
demonstratives, however, there are certain differences in meaning between the
functions of Modifier and Head; a demonstrative functioning as Head is more
like a personal pronoun.
Examples:
1) “I
earn what I need. And even that would be too much were it not for
all the Sundays and holidays when I must close my shop.”
2) Now,
to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a great
fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he
should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a
secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it.
In the first
example, “I earn what I need” is same as “that”. It shows that “that” refers
back to “I earn what I need” and we call it anaphoric. “that” is called
demonstrative reference because it shows or demonstrates something.
“Now” in the
second example, is one of the circumstantial (adverbial) demonstrative and
refers to the location of a process in space of time. In this example, “Now”
demonstrates the condition or time when the activity is doing.
1.1.3. Comparative
reference
By “general
comparison” is meant comparison that is simply in terms of likeness and
unlikeness, without respect to any particular property: two things may be the
same, similar or different (where “different” includes both “not the same” and
“not similar”). General comparison is expressed by a certain class of
adjectives and adverbs (separated from each other by a comma I the above
lists).
Examples:
1) So
it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper.
2) One
day the banker could stand it no longer.
3) Every
night he slept a little less, and each time he heard the slightest
sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.
4) Finally,
he could bear his unhappiness no longer.
5) Every
night he slept a little less, and each time he heard the slightest
sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.
“Happier than”
in the first example has a comparative reference because it compares the “rich
man” and “the pauper”.
“Longer” in the
second example compares the time or conditions of the action “stand”, present
condition and future condition (time).
“Less” in the
third example compares the quantity of action “slept”, it means that the
present quantity (of “slept”) less than before.
“Longer” in the fourth example compares the
time or conditions of the action “bear”, compares the present condition and
future condition (time).
“Slightest” in the
latest example shows that it is a superlative comparison; it is the slightest
sound (if it is compared with another sound).
1.2.
Substitution
Substitution
is replacement of one linguistic item by another. An ellipsis is also a kind of
Substitution where one linguistic item is replaced by nothing/ zero. Therefore
it is an omission of an item.
When we talk about replacement of
one item by another, we mean replacement of one word/phrase with another word
or phrase. We can say substitution is a relation on lexicogrammatical level. It
is used to avoid repetition of a particular item. But while locating cohesion
through substitution semantic is involved.
1.2.1. Nominal
Substitution
The substitute
‘one/ones’ always functions as Head of a nominal group, and can substitute only
for an item which is itself Head of a nominal group.
Examples:
1) Once
upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as
poor as the second was rich.
2) Once
upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the
second was rich.
1.2.2. Verbal
Substitution
The verbal
substitute is “do”. This operates as
head of a verbal group. Lexical verb is replaced by do and its position is on
the final in the group. This operates as the Head of the verbal group, in the
place that occupied by the lexical verb. Its position is always final in group.
Examples:
1)
I don’t count too well,
nor do I really care.
1.2.3. Clausal
Substitution
It is another
type of substitution in which what is presupposed is not an element within the
clause but an entire clause. In clausal substitution the entire clause is
presupposed, and the contrasting element is outside the clause.
Examples:
1) The
pauper had learned an important lesson, and so has the banker.
2) But
their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not.
1.3.
Ellipsis
It is another
cohesive device. An occasion when words are deliberately left out of a
sentence, though the meaning can still be understood. The leaving out of words
or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already
been referred or mentioned.
1.3.1. Nominal
ellipsis
It means
ellipsis within the nominal group. On the logical dimensions the structure is
that of a Head with optional modification, the modifying element includes some
which precede the Head and some which followed it as pre modifier and post
modifier
Examples:
1) He
wished to thank him for coming to his house, so he presented the poor man with a
bag of hundred gold coins.
2) So,
when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it
and covered it with the dirt.
In the first
example, “coins” is the head and “hundred gold” is the pre-modifier. It is
called pre-modifier because placed before the head “coins”.
“Hole” in the
second example is the head, and “a big” is the pre-modifier (placed before the
head).
1.3.2. Verbal
ellipsis
Verbal ellipsis
means the ellipsis within the verbal group. An elliptical verbal group
presupposes one or more words from previous verbal group. Technically, it is
defined as a verbal group whose structure does not fully express in systemic
feature.
Examples:
1)
1.3.3. Clausal
ellipsis
In
clausal ellipsis we look at the ellipsis from another angle. Taking the clause
as the point of departure, the clause in English considered as he expression of
the various speech functions, such as statement, question, response and so on.
Examples:
1.4.
Conjunction
Conjunction
is a word which joins words, phrases or clauses together, such as but, and,
when, so that, never the less, or, that and unless etc. conjunction is rather
different in nature from the other cohesive relations, from both reference, on
the one hand, and substitution and ellipsis on the other.
1.4.1. Additive
Additive
means substance added to another. Additive relation – is somewhat different
from coordination proper, although it is no doubt derivable from it.
Examples:
1) “I
earn what I need. And even that would be too much were it not for all
the Sundays and holidays when I must close my shop.”
2) “I
don’t count too well, nor do I really care. I live each day as it comes
and never worry about the next.”
3) The
banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his bed at
night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and full of
energy.
4) So,
when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the
garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt.
5) The
pauper had learned an important lesson, and so has the banker.
In
the first example, “And” is an additive conjunction and it is useful when
statement “I earn what I need” is added (connected) with “even that would be
too much were it not for all the Sundays and holidays when I must close my
shop”. It is similar with the third, fourth and fifth examples that use “and”
as the connector.
In the second example, “nor” is
useful to add or connect statement “do I really care” after “I don’t count too
well”. “Nor” is one kind of negative simple additive.
1.4.2. Adversative
The
basic meaning of the adversative relation is contrary to expectation. The
expectation may be derived from the content of what is being said, or from the
communication process, the speaker-hearer situation, so that here too as in the
additive, we find cohesion on both the external and the internal planes.
Examples:
1) But
their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was
not.
2) But
from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the
safety of his money.
3) So
he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he
believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.
4) One
day the banker could stand it no longer. He decided to find out why the pauper
was a happy man in spite of his poverty.
“But’ in the first example is one
of Simple Contrastive relation. And so has “But” in the second example. It
indicates that there is an opposition in each example.
“Only” in the third example is one
kind of Adversative relation and so has “in spite of” in the fourth example.
1.4.3. Causal
The
simple form of causal relation is expressed by so, thus, hence, therefore, consequently, accordingly and a number of expression
like as a result (of that), in consequence (of that),
because of that.
Examples:
1) The
first was as poor as the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the
rich man will be happier than the pauper.
2) He
decided to find out why the pauper was a happy man in spite of his poverty. So
he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he
believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.
3) He
decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need
it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded
corner of the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt.
4) So
he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he
believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.
“So”
in the first example is one kind of Simple Causal relations. It indicates that
the statement “The first was as poor as the second was rich” affected statement
“it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper”.
“So”
in the second example is used to connect statement “He decided to find out why
the pauper was a happy man in spite of his poverty” which affected statement
“he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he
believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth”.
“So”
in the third examples is used to connect statement “He decided to hide the bag,
so that he would have the money if ever he should need it” which affected
statement “when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded
corner of the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt”.
In
the fourth example, “because” is used to connect statement “So he summoned him
to his house and asked him his yearly income” which is affected by “he believed
that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth”.
1.4.4. Temporal
The
temporal relation is expressed in its simplest form by then. In sequential sense we have not only then and and then but
also next, afterwards, after that, subsequently and a number of other
expressions.
Examples:
1) “Well,
then, just tell me how much you earn in one day,” insisted the rich man.
2) Finally,
he could bear his unhappiness no longer. He went to the garden, dug up the
coins and returned them to the banker.
3) But
from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about
the safety of his money.
In
the first example, “then” is one kind of Sequential in Simple temporal
relations.
2. Lexical
cohesion
Lexical
Cohesion, is “phoric” cohesion that is established through the structure of the
lexis, or vocabulary, and hence (like substitution) at the lexico grammatical
level. While reference,
ellipsis, and conjunction tend to link clauses which are near each other in the
text, lexical cohesion tends to link much larger parts of the text. Lexical
cohesion is created by Reiteration and Collocation.
2.1.
Reiteration
Reiteration is a form
of Lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one end
of the scale, the use of a general word to refer back to a lexical item, at the
other end of the scale, and a number of things in between the use of synonym,
near synonym, or super ordinate.
2.1.1. The
same word – Repetition
Examples:
1) But
their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker
was not. The banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and
turned in his bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested
and full of energy.
2) So
it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper. But
their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was
not. The banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his
bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and
full of energy.
3) Now,
to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a great
fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if
ever he should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in
a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it.
2.1.2. Synonym
or near synonym
Examples:
1) Now,
to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a great
fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he
should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in
a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it, and covered it with
dirt.
2) But
from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the
safety of his money. Every night he slept a little les, and each
time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his
coins.
3) But
from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about
the safety of his money. Every night he slept a little less, and each time he
heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his
coins.
2.1.3. Super
ordinate
Examples:
1) But
from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the
safety of his money. Every night he slept a little less, and each time
he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.
2) “I
earn what I need. And even that would be too much were it not for all the Sundays
and holidays when I must close my shop.”
2.1.4. General
word
The general
words, which correspond to major classes of lexical items, are as we have said
very commonly used with cohesive force. They are on the borderline between
lexical items and substitutes.
Examples:
1) Once
upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as
the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier
than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was
happy whereas the banker was not.
2) Once
upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as
the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be
happier than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was
happy whereas the banker was not.
2.2.
Collocation
Collocation is the way
in which particular words tend to occur or belong together. It is two or more words that often go
together; these combinations just sound “right” to native English speakers who
use them all the time.
2.2.1. Complementary
Examples:
1) Once
upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the
second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier
than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was
happy whereas the banker was not.
2) One
day the banker could stand it no longer. He decided to find out why the pauper
was a happy man in spite of his poverty. So he summoned him to him to
his house and asked him his yearly income because he believed that happiness
could only be measured in terms of wealth.
2.2.2. Converseness
1) The
banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his bed at
night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and
full of energy.
2) So,
when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of
the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt.
2.2.3. Antonymy
1) Once
upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as
the second was rich.
2) Now,
to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a
great fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if
ever he should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big
hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it, and covered it
with dirt.
3) But
from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about
the safety of his money. Every night he slept a little less, and each
time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.
2.2.4. The
same ordered series.
Examples:
1) Once
upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as
the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be
happier than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was
happy whereas the banker was not.
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