Grammatical Cohesion - English

   Grammatical cohesion

1.1.            Reference

Reference is used to describe the different ways in which entities-things, people, events- are referred to within texts. There are range linguistic features, which enables speakers and writers to make such References, for example pronouns - may refer to entities already mentioned or about to be mentioned.

1.1.1.      Personal reference

It is a reference by means of function into a speech situation through the category of the person in the form of personal pronouns. The category of persons includes the three classes of personal pronouns. The category of person includes the three classes of personal pronouns.

Examples:

1)      The banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and full of energy.

2)      He decided to find out why the pauper was a happy man in spite of his poverty. So he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.

3)      He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need it.

4)      So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it, and covered it with dirt.

5)      Finally, he could bear his unhappiness no longer. He went to the garden, dug up the coins and returned them to the banker.

The example number 1 shows that “The banker” is the same person with “he”. So in this case, “he” refers back to “The banker”, and we can say it is an anaphoric.

      In the second example, we can find that “the pauper” is the same person with both “him”. So, both “him” refer back to “the pauper”; it is called anaphoric too.

      In the third example, “the money” is the same thing as “it” and we also call it an anaphoric. Anaphoric also found in the fourth and fifth       example – “a big hole” and both “it”, both “it” refer back to “a big hole”; and “the coins” is the same thing as “them”, so “them” refers back to “the coins”.

1.1.2.      Demonstrative reference

Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on scale of proximity. In the case of the demonstratives, however, there are certain differences in meaning between the functions of Modifier and Head; a demonstrative functioning as Head is more like a personal pronoun.

Examples:

1)      “I earn what I need. And even that would be too much were it not for all the Sundays and holidays when I must close my shop.”

2)      Now, to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a great fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it.

In the first example, “I earn what I need” is same as “that”. It shows that “that” refers back to “I earn what I need” and we call it anaphoric. “that” is called demonstrative reference because it shows or demonstrates something.

“Now” in the second example, is one of the circumstantial (adverbial) demonstrative and refers to the location of a process in space of time. In this example, “Now” demonstrates the condition or time when the activity is doing.

1.1.3.      Comparative reference

By “general comparison” is meant comparison that is simply in terms of likeness and unlikeness, without respect to any particular property: two things may be the same, similar or different (where “different” includes both “not the same” and “not similar”). General comparison is expressed by a certain class of adjectives and adverbs (separated from each other by a comma I the above lists).

Examples:

1)      So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper.

2)      One day the banker could stand it no longer.

3)      Every night he slept a little less, and each time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.

4)      Finally, he could bear his unhappiness no longer.

5)      Every night he slept a little less, and each time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.

“Happier than” in the first example has a comparative reference because it compares the “rich man” and “the pauper”.

“Longer” in the second example compares the time or conditions of the action “stand”, present condition and future condition (time).

“Less” in the third example compares the quantity of action “slept”, it means that the present quantity (of “slept”) less than before.

 “Longer” in the fourth example compares the time or conditions of the action “bear”, compares the present condition and future condition (time).

“Slightest” in the latest example shows that it is a superlative comparison; it is the slightest sound (if it is compared with another sound).

1.2.            Substitution

Substitution is replacement of one linguistic item by another. An ellipsis is also a kind of Substitution where one linguistic item is replaced by nothing/ zero. Therefore it is an omission of an item.

When we talk about replacement of one item by another, we mean replacement of one word/phrase with another word or phrase. We can say substitution is a relation on lexicogrammatical level. It is used to avoid repetition of a particular item. But while locating cohesion through substitution semantic is involved.

1.2.1.      Nominal Substitution

The substitute ‘one/ones’ always functions as Head of a nominal group, and can substitute only for an item which is itself Head of a nominal group.

Examples:

1)      Once upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the second was rich.

2)      Once upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the second was rich.

1.2.2.      Verbal Substitution

The verbal substitute is “do”. This operates as head of a verbal group. Lexical verb is replaced by do and its position is on the final in the group. This operates as the Head of the verbal group, in the place that occupied by the lexical verb. Its position is always final in group.

      Examples:

1)      I don’t count too well, nor do I really care.

1.2.3.      Clausal Substitution

It is another type of substitution in which what is presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. In clausal substitution the entire clause is presupposed, and the contrasting element is outside the clause.

Examples:

1)      The pauper had learned an important lesson, and so has the banker.

2)      But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not.

1.3.            Ellipsis

It is another cohesive device. An occasion when words are deliberately left out of a sentence, though the meaning can still be understood. The leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already been referred or mentioned.

1.3.1.      Nominal ellipsis

It means ellipsis within the nominal group. On the logical dimensions the structure is that of a Head with optional modification, the modifying element includes some which precede the Head and some which followed it as pre modifier and post modifier

Examples:

1)      He wished to thank him for coming to his house, so he presented the poor man with a bag of hundred gold coins.

2)      So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with the dirt.

In the first example, “coins” is the head and “hundred gold” is the pre-modifier. It is called pre-modifier because placed before the head “coins”.

“Hole” in the second example is the head, and “a big” is the pre-modifier (placed before the head).

1.3.2.      Verbal ellipsis

Verbal ellipsis means the ellipsis within the verbal group. An elliptical verbal group presupposes one or more words from previous verbal group. Technically, it is defined as a verbal group whose structure does not fully express in systemic feature.

Examples:

1)       

1.3.3.      Clausal ellipsis

In clausal ellipsis we look at the ellipsis from another angle. Taking the clause as the point of departure, the clause in English considered as he expression of the various speech functions, such as statement, question, response and so on.

Examples:

1.4.            Conjunction

Conjunction is a word which joins words, phrases or clauses together, such as but, and, when, so that, never the less, or, that and unless etc. conjunction is rather different in nature from the other cohesive relations, from both reference, on the one hand, and substitution and ellipsis on the other.

1.4.1.      Additive

Additive means substance added to another. Additive relation – is somewhat different from coordination proper, although it is no doubt derivable from it.

Examples:

1)      “I earn what I need. And even that would be too much were it not for all the Sundays and holidays when I must close my shop.”

2)      “I don’t count too well, nor do I really care. I live each day as it comes and never worry about the next.”

3)      The banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and full of energy.

4)      So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt.

5)      The pauper had learned an important lesson, and so has the banker.

In the first example, “And” is an additive conjunction and it is useful when statement “I earn what I need” is added (connected) with “even that would be too much were it not for all the Sundays and holidays when I must close my shop”. It is similar with the third, fourth and fifth examples that use “and” as the connector.

            In the second example, “nor” is useful to add or connect statement “do I really care” after “I don’t count too well”. “Nor” is one kind of negative simple additive.

1.4.2.      Adversative

The basic meaning of the adversative relation is contrary to expectation. The expectation may be derived from the content of what is being said, or from the communication process, the speaker-hearer situation, so that here too as in the additive, we find cohesion on both the external and the internal planes.

Examples:

1)      But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not.

2)      But from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the safety of his money.

3)      So he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.

4)      One day the banker could stand it no longer. He decided to find out why the pauper was a happy man in spite of his poverty.

“But’ in the first example is one of Simple Contrastive relation. And so has “But” in the second example. It indicates that there is an opposition in each example.

“Only” in the third example is one kind of Adversative relation and so has “in spite of” in the fourth example.

1.4.3.      Causal

The simple form of causal relation is expressed by so, thus, hence, therefore, consequently, accordingly and a number of expression like as a result (of that), in consequence (of that), because of that.

Examples:

1)      The first was as poor as the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper.

2)      He decided to find out why the pauper was a happy man in spite of his poverty. So he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.

3)      He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt.

4)      So he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.

“So” in the first example is one kind of Simple Causal relations. It indicates that the statement “The first was as poor as the second was rich” affected statement “it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper”.

“So” in the second example is used to connect statement “He decided to find out why the pauper was a happy man in spite of his poverty” which affected statement “he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth”.

“So” in the third examples is used to connect statement “He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need it” which affected statement “when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt”.

In the fourth example, “because” is used to connect statement “So he summoned him to his house and asked him his yearly income” which is affected by “he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth”.

1.4.4.      Temporal

The temporal relation is expressed in its simplest form by then. In sequential sense we have not only then and and then but also next, afterwards, after that, subsequently and a number of other expressions.

Examples:

1)      “Well, then, just tell me how much you earn in one day,” insisted the rich man.

2)      Finally, he could bear his unhappiness no longer. He went to the garden, dug up the coins and returned them to the banker.

3)      But from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the safety of his money.

In the first example, “then” is one kind of Sequential in Simple temporal relations.

2.      Lexical cohesion

Lexical Cohesion, is “phoric” cohesion that is established through the structure of the lexis, or vocabulary, and hence (like substitution) at the lexico grammatical level. While reference, ellipsis, and conjunction tend to link clauses which are near each other in the text, lexical cohesion tends to link much larger parts of the text. Lexical cohesion is created by Reiteration and Collocation.

2.1.            Reiteration

Reiteration is a form of Lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one end of the scale, the use of a general word to refer back to a lexical item, at the other end of the scale, and a number of things in between the use of synonym, near synonym, or super ordinate.

2.1.1.      The same word – Repetition

Examples:

1)      But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not. The banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and full of energy.

2)      So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not. The banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and full of energy.

3)      Now, to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a great fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it.

2.1.2.      Synonym or near synonym

Examples:

1)      Now, to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a great fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it, and covered it with dirt.

2)      But from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the safety of his money. Every night he slept a little les, and each time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.

3)      But from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the safety of his money. Every night he slept a little less, and each time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.

2.1.3.      Super ordinate

Examples:

1)      But from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the safety of his money. Every night he slept a little less, and each time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.

2)      “I earn what I need. And even that would be too much were it not for all the Sundays and holidays when I must close my shop.”

2.1.4.      General word

The general words, which correspond to major classes of lexical items, are as we have said very commonly used with cohesive force. They are on the borderline between lexical items and substitutes.

Examples:

1)      Once upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not.

2)      Once upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not.

2.2.            Collocation

Collocation is the way in which particular words tend to occur or belong together. It is two or more words that often go together; these combinations just sound “right” to native English speakers who use them all the time.

2.2.1.      Complementary

Examples:

1)      Once upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not.

2)      One day the banker could stand it no longer. He decided to find out why the pauper was a happy man in spite of his poverty. So he summoned him to him to his house and asked him his yearly income because he believed that happiness could only be measured in terms of wealth.

2.2.2.      Converseness

1)      The banker was annoyed of the fact that while he tossed and turned in his bed at night, the pauper slept peacefully and always awoke rested and full of energy.

2)      So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it and covered it with dirt.

2.2.3.      Antonymy

1)      Once upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the second was rich.

2)      Now, to the pauper these coins, which meant so little to the banker, seemed a great fortune. He decided to hide the bag, so that he would have the money if ever he should need it. So, when he returned to his house, he dug a big hole in a secluded corner of the garden, threw the bag into it, and covered it with dirt.

3)      But from that day on, the poor man’s life changed- he began to worry about the safety of his money. Every night he slept a little less, and each time he heard the slightest sound, he became anxious about the safety of his coins.

2.2.4.      The same ordered series.

Examples:

1)      Once upon a time there lived a pauper and a banker. The first was as poor as the second was rich. So it was inevitable that the rich man will be happier than the pauper. But their natures were opposite, for the poor man was happy whereas the banker was not.

Writing a Paragraph

Academic Skills Advice Sheet
In academic writing, one paragraph constitutes the presentation of one argument. A
paragraph contains a claim and proof of the legitimacy of that claim. Typically,
paragraphs contain two parts: the topic sentence and support.
The topic sentence states what you are talking about (the topic) and what you want to say
about it (claim).

Some examples:
• All apples (topic) have pips (claim).
• Studying at university (topic) is a waste of money (claim).
• Writing essays (topic) is the best fun you can have outside Las Vegas (claim).
• The Blue Whale (topic) is the largest animal that has ever existed (claim).
• The theory of general relativity (topic) is a metric theory of gravitation (claim).
Support can be made up of a variety of different things depending on what sort of claim
you are making. If you are describing a theory, the support would consist of further
exposition. If you are making a claim about the truthfulness or falsehood of something, it
would consist of proof.

Some types of support are:
• Facts
• Statistics
• Theory
• Logic
• Paraphrase
• Direct quotation
• Explanation
• Can you think of any more?

The support should convince the reader that the claim made in the topic sentence is
accurate. Also, bear in mind the relevance of the support. Be careful if you use a lot of
internet sources as there are few quality control measures on the web. The essay you
base your argument on might have been written by a 15 year old high school kid from
Minnesota.

Journals usually provide the most up to date forms of support and in general, the most
recent information is the best. Be careful about using books or journals that are more than
10 years old. Unless they are seminal (very significant) works, the chances are that
something more relevant has been written between now and then.
Sample paragraph:

Psychoanalysis (topic) is a pseudoscientific discipline as its claims cannot be disproved
(claim). One of the principle characteristics of the scientific method is the statement of
verifiable claims and the abandonment of theories that prove to be false. Thus although
Newton’s theory of gravitation was accepted for over 200 years, it was superseded by
Einstein’s theory of general relativity in the early 20th century (Carter, 1997).
Psychoanalytical claims are non verifiable as they are sufficiently vague so as to always
escape refutation (Popper, 1963). There is no end to the process of free association and
many of Freud’s claims defy testing. In the case of Little Hans, Freud argues that the
subject’s fear of horses is a manifestation of his desire to replace his father as his
mother’s mate (Oedipus complex). However, Freud would not claim all people who are
scared of horses want to kill their fathers, or that all people who kill their fathers are
scared of horses. The distinction between scientific and pseudoscientific explanations is
the difference between causes and reasons (Popper, 1963). Whereas science provides
causes for phenomena, Psychoanalysis provides reasons. A cause (such as the effects
of gravity) can be tested, a reason (such as seeing your parents argue when you were an
infant) cannot. Therefore Psychoanalysis should be seen as a pseudoscientific discipline
because it provides reasons not causes, and reasons cannot be disproved.
Now that you have read this paragraph, consider the types of support used. Does the
support add up to a convincing argument? Why?

• Facts Y/N - examples ………………………………….
• Statistics Y/N - examples ………………..……………
• Theory Y/N - examples ………………..………………
• Logic Y/N - examples ………………..………………..
• Paraphrase Y/N - examples ………………………….
• Direct quotation Y/N - examples ……………………
• Explanation Y/N - examples …………………………
• Are you convinced? Y/N Why? ..............................

Sequence of Tenses

Sequence of Tenses

All languages have a way of keeping the meaning of a statement clear. If we are talking about something that someone told us yesterday, we can make it clear whether he told us about something that had already happened, or if he reported what happened to him at the time of his report or what he expected to happen the next day. This is the sequence of tenses: the following of one statement to another, the making sense of the expressions of time in the sentences. From now one when we say tense, it means the time (in the present, past, or future) expressed in the verb.

English has only two tenses which are shown by changes in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses are marked by other words called "auxiliaries", or helping words.

If you understand six basic tenses you will be able to re-create much of the reality of time in your writing. The six are:

·         Simple Present: They walk

·         Present Perfect: They have walked

·         Simple Past: They walked

·         Past Perfect: They had walked

·         Future: They will walk

·         Future Perfect: They will have walked

The tense of a verb in subordinate clauses changes in accordance with the tense of the verb in the main clause.

In clearer language this means: The tense of a verb in all parts of the sentence have to change according to the tense of the verb in the most important part of the sentence. The word "subordinate" means something is of a lower order or category. Therefore, a subordinate clause is not the most important or main part of the sentence. It is subordinate or dependent because it is of a lower order than the main clause and it depends on it to make sense. Remember the word "subordinate" while reading what follows.

First we will look at a few simple rules that will help you in your writing. Later we will look at other more complex situations. The basic rules are as follows:

1. THE FIRST RULE USUALLY CAUSES NO PROBLEM TO ENGLISH LEARNERS.

If the verb in the principal clause is in the present or the future tense, the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense, depending upon the sense to be expressed.

If the main verb is in the present tense, he is speaking to me now and:

He says that his brother is sick.

He is informing me NOW that his brother is sick NOW

He says that his brother was sick.

He is informing me NOW that his brother WAS sick yesterday

He says that his brother will be sick.

He is informing me NOW that his brother WILL BE sick tomorrow

If the main verb is in the future tense, I predict that::

He will say that his brother is sick.

He will inform me that his brother is sick AT THE TIME HE TALKS TO ME.

He will say that his brother was sick.

He will inform me that his brother WAS sick yesterday

He will say that his brother will be sick.

He will inform me that his brother WILL BE sick tomorrow

2. HOWEVER, THE SECOND RULE IS OFTEN BROKEN.

If the tense in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tense in the subordinate clause has to be in the past tense.

Many learners do not realize that the words would and could are the past tense of the verbs will and could.

He said that he would come. It is wrong to say: He said that he will come.

I knew that he could not pass. It is wrong to say I knew that he can not pass

There are, nevertheless, a few exceptions to this rule.

1. A past tense in the main clause may be followed by a present tense in the

subordinate clause when the subordinate clause expresses some truth that is not limited to the time of the statement in the past.

Galileo proved that the earth moves round the sun.

My mother told us that honesty is the best policy.

The professor told me that the Hindus burn their dead.

2. A subordinate clause expressing place, reason or comparison may be in any tense, according to the sense to be expressed.

He didn't get the job because his English isn't good.

A fishing village once existed where now you can see the city of Mumbai.

That person who once was a little girl in rags will be the new Prime Minister of Neverlandia.

3. If the subordinate clause is an adjective clause (a group of words that says something about a person or thing), it may be in any tense according to the sense of the sentence.

Yesterday I met a man who sells balloons.

Meaning: Selling balloons is his occupation.

Yesterday I met a man who sold me a balloon.

Meaning: I bought a balloon from him yesterday

Yesterday I met a man who will sell balloons to the supermarket.

Meaning: He has a plan for the future to sell to the supermarket.

3. THE THIRD RULE IS CLEAR AND EASY This is an easy rule, but is important for English learners to learn. If it is not followed, the speaking or writing will be noticed as an error that only foreigners make.

If the principal clause is in the future tense, we do NOT use future tense in

subordinating clauses beginning with the words such as when, until, before, after etc.

I will call you when dinner is ready. (NOT I will call you when dinner will be ready.)

I shall wait until you return. (NOT I shall wait until you will return.)

4. THE PERFECT TENSES Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part of the verb.

This tense is common not only in English but also in many European languages, such as French, Spanish, German, Russian etc.

·         ring, rang, rung

·         walk, walked, walked

·         say, said,said,

·         do, did, done

·         go,. went gone

·         look, looked, looked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of the verbs: "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.

Present Perfect The present perfect tense consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with a form of the auxiliary verb "to have"" It describes an action which began in the past but which continues into the present or whose effect still continues.

Luann taught for ten years. (simple past)

This implies or gives us the idea that she no longer teaches.

Luann has taught for ten years. (present perfect)

This implies or gives us the idea that she is still teaching.

The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.

Past Perfect

The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.

Peter bought cars and sold them. (simple past)

Peter sold cars that he had painted. (past perfect)

This clarifies that the cars were painted before they were sold.

Ray washed the car when Mary came. (simple past)

This implies or gives us the idea that Ray didn't wash the car until Mary arrived and then he washed the car

Ray had washed the car when Mary came. (past perfect)

This implies or gives us the idea that he had already finished washing the car by the time she arrived.

Future Perfect

The future perfect tense designates action that is expected to be completed at some set time in the future.

Friday I will finish my cooking for the party. (simple future

This simply states that I will finish on Friday.

By Friday noon, I will have finished cooking for the party. (future perfect)

This implies or gives us the idea that I will finish cooking for the partyby Friday

Review the Perfect Tenses

Judy saved thirty dollars. (past)

·         Judy will save thirty dollars. (future)

·         Judy has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect)

·         Judy had saved thirty dollars by the end of last month. before she left home. (past perfect)

·         Judy will have saved thirty dollars by the end of this month. (future perfect)

5. THE TENSES IN CONDTIONAL SENTENCES

Conditional ("if") sentences normally have two parts.

One part shows a result and the other shows a condition on which the result depends. The condition is normally

preceded by the word "if". For example: "If he eats, he'll get stronger."

the result is "he'll get stronger" and the condition

(introduced by "if") is "he eats."

For example: "He got angry if he didn't get what he wanted,"

the result is "he got angry" and the condition

(introduced by "if") is "he didn't get what he wanted."

There are two main types of conditional sentences: real

and unreal (sometimes called "conditions contrary to fact").

Real conditional sentences refer to situations that are either true or possible. They may be real conditions in the present or in the past, as in the sentences of above" "If he eats" is in the present. "If he didn't get what he wanted" is in the past.

In the next section you will see how a new writer of English makes a mistake with a simple real condition.

Unreal conditionals refer to situations that are untrue, impossible or hypothetical; for this reason conditional sentences of this type are often described as being "contrary to fact".

We've already looked at real conditional sentences. Now let's take a look at the unreal ones.

There are different types of unreal conditional sentences according to the time that they refer to. However, despite the time of the verb in the condition, the situations that they show are unreal, hypothetical, and contrary to fact.

The first type of unreal conditional is used for present and future time.

In these sentences the condition can be followed by the result, or the result can come first followed by the condition.

NOTICEIn these sentences the condition is shown by the verbin the past tense, although the condition takes placein the present. The result usually has a form of the word "would". Look at the example sentences until you see this clearly!

Examples:

If I were a diplomat, I'd travel around the world.

I'd travel around the world if I were a diplomat.

(I'm not a diplomat, so I can't travel around the world.)

If she were here today, she'd help you.

He'd help you if he were here today.

(She isn't here today, so she can't help you.)

If the horse were smaller, I'd buy it.

I'd buy it if the horse were smaller.

(The horse is big, so I won't buy it.)

If I had a passport, I'd travel around the world.

I'd travel around the world if I had a passport.

(I don't have a passport, so I can't travel around the world.)

If you asked him, he'd help you.

He'd help you if you asked him.

(You haven't asked him, so he can't help you.)

If governments protected human rights, their citizens would be happy.

Citizens would be happy if their If governments protected human rights.

(Many governments don't protect human rights, so their citizens are not happy.)

NOTICE: As mentioned in the previous notice, in the sentences of above there is a difference in tense and time. The verb of the condition is in the past tense, although the situation is in present or future time). This difference in tense and time signals that the situation is unreal, hypothetical, and contrary to fact.

But be careful! Some new writers use a past tense of the verb in real conditional sentences. For example:I must pass the test. If I didn't pass it, that means I couldn't take my major courses. This an unnecessary complication. Surely the new writer is confusing the rule of the past tense for unreal conditional sentences. I think that what she wanted to write was: "If I don't pass the test, I can't take my major courses. Everything is in the present and it written the same way we think about the condition.

SPECIAL CASES:

1. In casual conversation and very informal writing, the word "was" is often used instead of were.

2. In unreal conditionals,the words "could" and

"might" are also possible:

If I were a diplomat, I could travel around the world.

I might travel around the world if I were a diplomat.

If she were here today, she could help you.

He might help you if he were here today.

If the horse were smaller, I could buy it.

I might buy it if the horse were smaller.

3. If would shows willingness, it may appear in both the condition and the result:

If she would study, she would get good grades.

(She isn't willing to study, so she probably won't get good grades.)

If Shlomo would eat pork, we might ask him

to dinner.

(He isn't willing to eat pork, so we don't ask him to dinner.

4. Would cannot be used in the condition if it doesn't refer to willingness:

If I would be young, I would have more energy.

If he would have enough time, he would help you.

Conditional Sentences An important place of the perfect tenses is in sentences that talk about possibilities and conditions. These are very important and have to be perfectly expressed in your writing. These expressions are formed with all the perfect tenses: the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect.

In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states the condition. This part can come first in a sentence before the result, or the result can come before the condition.

An example which uses the present perfect.

If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

The condition was doing my exercises. The result was passing the test.

An example which uses the past perfect.

I think George would have been elected if he had talked to the Press.

The condition was talking to the Press. The result was being elected.

An example which uses the future perfect.

If I am lucky I will have finished the job by December.

The condition is being lucky. The result is finishing the job.

Notice that the writer is thinking of December, and states that the ongoing job will be finished by December

Improve your accent in English at www.GoodAccent.com

Frank Gerace Ph.D has served in Latin America in Educational and Communication Projects, and has taught in Bolivian and Peruvian Universities. He currently teaches English in New York City at a CUNY college. He helps adult learners of all languages get a correct North American English accent at: http://www.GoodAccent.com/accentbooks.htm

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